Freyd, Jennifer J. (1994). Betrayal trauma: Traumatic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse. Ethics & Behavior 4 (4) 307-329.
.Abstract: Describes psychogenic amnesia as an adaptive response to childhood abuse based on betrayal trauma theory. Why amnesia is a response to childhood abuse, the cognitive architecture of these dissociations, why and how traumatic amnesia occurs, and the implications of these findings are discussed. Victims may need to remain unaware of the trauma not to reduce suffering but rather to promote survival. Amnesia enables the child to maintain an attachment with a figure vital to survival, development, and thriving. Analysis of evolutionary pressures, mental modules, social cognition, and developmental needs suggests that the degree to which the most fundamental human ethics are violated can influence the nature, form, and processes of trauma and responses to trauma.
Freyd, Jennifer J., and David H. Gleaves (1996). "Remembering" Words Not Presented in Lists: Relevance to the Current Recovered/False Memory Controversy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22 (3), 811-813.
.Abstract: H. L. Roediger and K. B. McDermott (1995) found that when participants studied a list of words with a common, but not presented associate participants frequently falsely reported remembering the never presented associated word as part of the list. Roediger and McDermott suggest that this finding is generalizable to the current controversy surrounding contested memories of child abuse. The present authors urge caution in making such a generalization, arguing that there are critical differences between Roediger and McDermott's findings and contested memories of abuse.
Freyd, J.J. (1996). The science of memory: Apply with caution. Traumatic StressPoints, 10 (4), 1, 8.
. Freyd, J. J. (1997). Violations of power, adaptive blindness, and betrayal trauma theory. Feminism and Psychology. 7, 22-32.
. Opening Section: Interpersonal Power. Who has it? Who doesn't have it? What happens when power is used to abuse? These are central questions for feminist psychology. Implicit in these considerations of power are questions of interpersonal trust and betrayal: who trusts whom, and why is trust required? What happens when trust is betrayed? How does interpersonal power influence interpersonal trust? How does a person respond when a more powerful person betrays? Interpersonal power, interpersonal trust, and betrayal are also fundamental components of betrayal trauma theory (Freyd, 1994; 1996). Betrayal trauma theory addresses the motivations for, and mechanisms resulting in, amnesia for childhood abuse. In this article I will briefly summarize some aspects of betrayal trauma theory (focusing mostly on the motivations, not the mechanisms). I will then discuss some issues relevant to feminist psychology.
Ordering: Individual issues of Feminism and Psychology may be ordered from Sage Publications, info@sagepub.com or 805-499-0721.
DePrince, A.P. and Freyd, J.J. (1997). So What is the Dispute About? The Judges' Journal: A Quarterly of the Judicial Division of the American Bar Association. 36(3), 70-72.
.Gleaves, D. H. & Freyd, J.J. (1997). Questioning additional claims about the "false memory syndrome" epidemic. [commentary] American Psychologist, 52 993-994.
.Summary: In this comment on the article by K. S. Pope (see record 83-37387), the authors agree about the need to evaluate the empirical evidence regarding the alleged epidemic of false memories and accusations of abuse. The authors also express an additional concern that the data presented to support claims of false memory syndrome proponents are frequently extreme misapplications of published research. Examples of such misrepresentations are presented and discussed.
DePrince, A.P. and Freyd, J.J. (1998). Trauma, Science, and Society [Book review] Contemporary Psychology, 43, 398-399.
. Freyd, J. J. (1998). Science in the Memory Debate. Ethics & Behavior, 8 (2), 101-113.
. Abstract: Experimental Psychology has much to offer the current debate about memories of childhood abuse. However, laboratory scientists, with their enormous cognitive authority to define reality for the rest of the population, must be especially conservative when arguing that laboratory results on memory generalize to contested memories of abuse. Researchers must make an effort to untangle the appropriate from inappropriate application of research results to this debate. A crucial untangling strategy for future research on general phenomena involves taking care to pose questions separately. When the research is disseminated, its relevance and its limitations must be carefully communicated. Finally, scientists must attend to their power to define reality for others.
Ordering: This article appeared in a Special Issue of Ethics & Behavior. Other contributors include Ross Cheit, Anna Salter, David Calof, Jennifer Hoult, Laura Brown (for a review and summary of the special issue see Chapman's review). The special issue (Volume 8, Number 2) of Ethics & Behavior can be ordered from LEA by calling 1-800-9BOOKS9, fax to 201/236-0072, or e-mail to orders@leahq.mhs.compuserve.com.
Freyd, J. J., S. R. Martorello, J. S. Alvarado, A. E. Hayes, & J. C. Christman (1998). Cognitive environments and dissociative tendencies: Performance on the Standard Stroop task for high versus low dissociators. Applied Cognitve Psychology, 12, S91-S103.
. Abstract: Dissociative experiences are characterized by a disruption in integration of consciousness, attention, and/or memory. Most individuals have some dissociative experiences (such as "highway hypnosis"), but some individuals have remarkably frequent and intense dissociative experiences (as in the case of Dissociative Identity Disorder (formerly known as Multiple Personality Disorder)). We hypothesized that individual differences in dissociative experiences may have an attentional basis an/or effect on attentional mechanisms. We report on a study in which we selected high and low dissociators, as measured by the Dissociative Experiences Scale (Bernstein and Putnam, 1986) and we evaluated each group's performance on a basic Stroop interference task with incongruent colour terms and control stimuli. We found that the high dissociators showed greater Stroop interference than did the low dissociators. We discuss our current theoretical understanding of this relationship in which we speculate that a history of trauma is an important causal factor in both high levels of dissociative experiences and changes in basic attentional strategies and mechanisms.
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Freyd, J.J. (1999). Blind to Betrayal: New Perspectives on Memory for Trauma. The Harvard Mental Health Letter, 15 (12) 4-6.
.Ordering: http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletters/backmental.html
Veldhuis, C. B., & Freyd, J. J. (1999). Groomed for silence, groomed for betrayal. In M. Rivera (Ed.), Fragment by Fragment: Feminist Perspectives on Memory and Child Sexual Abuse (pp. 253-282). Charlottetown, PEI Canada: Gynergy Books.
. Overview (paragraph from page 254): In this article, we seek to explore the relationships between language and memory in the context of childhood abuse. We will consider this language-memory relationship from various perspectives, including the role of societal responses to disclosures and, especially, the role of perpetrator communication on the victim's subsequent memory and processing of the event. We theorize that, in addition to victim motivations related to coping with betrayal trauma (that is, betrayal by someone close to them), certain patterns of communication within the perpetrator-victim relationship will have predictable effects on victim awareness and memory of the abuse -- and perhaps that the perpetrator can exploit these very dynamics to suppress the child's knowledge of the abuse.
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DePrince, A.P. & Freyd, J.J. (1999). Review of Truth in Memory (Lynn & McConkey, Eds.) American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 41, 281-283.
. DePrince, A.P. & Freyd, J.J. (1999). Dissociative tendencies, attention, and memory. Psychological Science, 10, 449-452.
.Abstract: Two groups of college-students were selected based on their scores on the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES). The high-DES group (score > 20; M = 29.6; n = 54) and low-DES group (score < 10; M = 5.1; n = 54) both completed the standard and a new dual-task version of the Stroop ink-naming task with xs (baseline condition) and color, neutral, and emotionally charged words. Free recall results indicate that high-DES participants remembered fewer emotionally charged words than low-DES participants. We found a cross-over interaction for Stroop Interference: High DES participants showed more interference (conflicting color &endash; baseline latency for ink naming) in a selective-attention Stroop task and less interference in the dual-task Stroop task. The interaction between attentional context and dissociation for Stroop interference and the free recall results are consistent with a cognitive-environments view of dissociative tendencies. In this view, dissociative tendencies, which have been otherwise speculated to be largely deleterious, can be advantageous in certain contexts.
Freyd, J. J. & Quina, K. (2000). Feminist ethics in the practice of science: The contested memory controversy as an example. In M. Brabeck (Ed) Practicing Feminist Ethics in Psychology (pp. 101-124). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
. Abstract: (from the chapter) The authors take the position that current scientific work may shed significant insight on any given issue, even such a difficult-to-research area as delayed recall of childhood abuse. The authors discuss some of the ways that science has been misapplied and principles of good science have been violated, using examples from the debate over delayed recall of childhood abuse. The authors demonstrate how a feminist ethical perspective can inform this debate, regardless of the position one assumes with respect to the issue. The authors also suggest some guidelines that may be useful in minimizing further misapplications of science through careful applications of feminist ethical principles. The authors focus on the ethical issues to which feminist scientists could and should be paying attention. Although the authors focus more on the misuse of science to support the false memory position, the popular press and much of academia have embraced or promoted the position that science supports premises of false memory proponents.
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Becker, K.A. & Freyd, J.J. (2000). Book review of Pillemer's Momentus Events. biography: an international quarterly, 23, 372-374.
Full text: available on this site.
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Ordering: University of Hawaii Press, 808-956-88533
DePrince, A.P. & Freyd, J.J. (2001). The meeting of trauma & cognitive science: Facing challenges and creating opportunities at the crossroads, Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 4 (2), 1-8. [Also published as: Freyd, J.J. & DePrince, A.P. (Eds) (2001). Trauma and Cognitive Science: A Meeting of Minds, Science, and Human Experience. Haworth Press.]
. Abstract: This article argues for the necessity of a multidisciplinary approach to traumatic stress studies. The intersection of cognitive science and trauma offers both challenge and potential. The current article considers these challenges and opportunities in light of lessons learned at the 1998 Meeting on Trauma and Cognitive Science, held at the University of Oregon. The article will discuss the creation of this volume from the 1998 Meeting
Freyd, J.J. & DePrince, A.P. (2001). Perspectives on memory for trauma and cognitive processes associated with dissociative tendencies. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 4 (2), 137-163. [Also published as: Freyd, J.J. & DePrince, A.P. (Eds) (2001). Trauma and Cognitive Science: A Meeting of Minds, Science, and Human Experience. Haworth Press.]
. Abstract: Cognitive science approaches can inform research in traumatic stress studies by articulating separate scientific issues that may be relevant to understanding alterations in memory and awareness for trauma. This article will first address general issues about disrupted memory and "knowledge isolation" for trauma, as well as introduce specific aspects of "betrayal trauma theory" that inform our understanding of memory impairment. According to betrayal trauma theory, a potent motivation for knowledge isolation (including amnesia, dissociation, and unawareness) in the face of trauma is to preserve apparently necessary human relationships in which betrayal occurs. Results from 3 recent laboratory investigations of cognitive processes associated with dissociative tendencies are summarized. These laboratory investigations suggest that the attentional capacities of high dissocators are impaired under conditions of selective attention, but not divided attention. The findings suggest that high dissociators use divided attention and multi-tasking as a way to control the flow of information. Such a view is consistent with betrayal trauma theory. Though in its infancy, this research draws on cognitive science and observations of traumatic response and offers much promise.
Freyd, J.J. & DePrince, A.P. (2001). Finding a secret garden in trauma research, Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 4 (2), 305-309.. [Also published as: Freyd, J.J. & DePrince, A.P. (Eds) (2001). Trauma and Cognitive Science: A Meeting of Minds, Science, and Human Experience. Haworth Press.]
Full text: available
on this site.
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Abstract: This article briefly summarizes the diversity in perspectives
and methodologies captured in the current volume. The authors discuss
diversity in the context of the 1998 Meeting on Trauma and Cognitive Science,
and the future of traumatic stress studies. In addition, future directions
for research and collaborative approaches are discussed.
Becker, K.A. & Freyd, J.J. (2001). Legal remedies for sexual abuse survivors (book review of Sexual Abuse Litigation: A Practical Resource for Attorneys, Clinicians, and Advocates). Psychology of Women's Quarterly, 25, 258 - 259.
. DePrince, A.P. & Freyd, J.J. (2001). Memory and dissociative tendencies: The roles of attentional context and word meaning in a directed forgetting task. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 2(2), 67-82.
.Abstract: Examined cognitive correlates of dissociative tendencies and considered the results in the context of theory-building in the dissociation and traumatic stress literature. The current study is a replication and extension of research by R. J. McNally et al (1998). Ss were undergraduate students selected based on their performance on the Dissociative Experiences Scale (DES): 28 Ss (mean age 19 yrs) were high-scorers (score>=20) and 28 Ss (mean age 21 yrs) were low-scorers (score<=10). Ss performed a computerized directed forgetting task using trauma, neutral, and positive words that they were directed to either remember or forget. Words were randomly assigned to 3 blocks, each of which was paired with 1 of 3 attention conditions: selective attention; divided attention with key press; and divided attention with voice response. Each block was viewed 3 times by each S and presented in a random order. After viewing all word blocks, Ss performed free recall and recognition tests. Results show differences between high- and low- DES scorers during the divided attention with key press condition. Consistent with prior research, when divided attention was required, high-scoring DES Ss recalled fewer trauma and more neutral words than did low-scoring DES Ss, who showed the opposite pattern
Stoler, L., Quina, K., DePrince, A.P &. Freyd, J. J. (2001). Recovered memories. In J. Worrell (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Women and Gender, Volume Two. (pp 905-917) San Diego, California and London: Academic Press.
.Freyd, J.J., DePrince, A.P., & Zurbriggen, E.L. (2001). Self-reported memory for abuse depends upon victim-perpetrator relationship. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 2(3), 5-17.
.Abstract: This article presents preliminary results from the Betrayal Trauma Inventory (BTI), which tests predictions from betrayal trauma theory (J. J. Freyd, 1994, 1996, in press) about the relationship between amnesia and betrayal by a caregiver. For this study, 202 undergraduate students participated in the survey. The BTI assesses trauma history using behaviorally defined events in the domains of sexual, physical, and emotional childhood abuse, as well as other lifetime traumatic events. When participants endorse an abuse experience, follow-up questions assess a variety of factors including memory impairment and perpetrator relationship. Preliminary results support the prediction that abuse perpetrated by a caregiver is related to less persistent memories of abuse. This relationship is significant for sexual and physical abuse. Regression analyses revealed that age was not a significant predictor of memory impairment and that duration of abuse could not account for the findings.
Freyd, J.J. (2001). Memory and Dimensions of Trauma: Terror May be 'All-Too-Well Remembered' and Betrayal Buried. In J.R. Conte (Ed.) Critical Issues in Child Sexual Abuse: Historical, Legal, and Psychological Perspectives (pp. 139-173). Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.
.Freyd, J.J. (2002). In the wake of terrorist attack hatred may mask fear. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2, 5-8. Also published as: Misplaced anger may mask fear and sadness. [Op-Ed article] Register Guard, September 24, 2001, p. 9A.]. Also available with additional references as In the Wake of Terrorist Attacks Misplaced Anger May Mask Fear and Sadness.
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Expanded version available on this site
Abstract: Reactions of anger, rage, and hatred in the wake of September 11 terrorist attack are considered in light of the psychology of emotion and stress. Acknowledging underlying grief and fear through self-reflection, writing, and social communication is likely to reduce unchecked anger, rage, and hatred. Hate crimes may also have some psychological bases in responses to stress called "flight-or-fight." When flight is not an option, identifying and hating an enemy may have had evolutionary value for survival. This response creates harm in the current situation. An alternative cooperative response to stress, called "tend-and-befriend" by researchers, will be more helpful.
Sivers, H., Schooler, J. , Freyd, J. J. (2002). Recovered memories. In V.S. Ramachandran (Ed.) Encyclopedia of the Human Brain, Volume 4. (pp 169-184). San Diego, California and London: Academic Press.
DePrince, A.P. & Freyd, J.J. (2002). The harm of trauma: Pathological fear, shattered assumptions, or betrayal? In J. Kauffman (Ed.) Loss of the Assumptive World: a theory of traumatic loss. (pp 71-82). New York: Brunner-Routledge.
.DePrince, A.P. & Freyd, J.J. (2002). The intersection of gender and betrayal in trauma. In R. Kimerling, P.C. Ouimette, & J. Wolfe (Eds.) Gender and PTSD. (pp 98-113). New York: Guilford Press.
.(from the chapter) Many traumatic events involve some degree of social betrayal. In cases of interpersonal violence, betrayal may take the form of caregivers' or trusted partners' perpetration of violence. Some forms of trauma are less likely to involve social betrayal, such as natural disasters. This chapter explores gender differences in traumas that involve betrayal, using this framework to make predictions about gender and memory impairment in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Based on the current literature, we have evidence that females experience more betrayal traumas than males, when betrayal is defined as "abuse by someone on whom the victim is dependent." We do have to be cautious in interpreting this finding. Although we have evidence of differences in men's and women's reports of trauma, we cannot determine which of these differences are explained by socialization as opposed to experience with traumatic events; that is, are women simply more willing to report abuse by caregivers than men? We do not know whether the gender differences for reported betrayal versus fear reflect gender narratives that men and women learn as they are sex-role socialized, or the experience of different traumatic events; most likely they reflect both.
Zurbriggen, E.L., Pearce, G.E. & Freyd, J.J. (2003). Evaluating the impact of betrayal for children exposed in photographs. Children & Society, 17, 305-320.
Abstract: Elements of betrayal trauma theory (Freyd, [1996]) are used to evaluate potential negative and positive consequences for children who serve as artistic models, particularly those who model for their artist parents. Several dimensions are considered in evaluating the likelihood of harm: nudity, motives of the artist, consent, external vulnerability, and objectification. Recommendations to artists include appointing an advocate for the child, discussing photographic sessions and allowing observers, and going beyond standard release procedures. Similarities to the domains of creative writing and research psychology are considered.
Freyd, J. J. (2003). Memory for abuse: What can we learn from a prosecution sample? Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 12(2) , 97-103.
Full text: available on this
site.
Zurbriggen, E.L. & Freyd, J.J. (2004). The link between childhood sexual abuse and risky sexual behavior: The role of dissociative tendencies, information-processing effects, and consensual sex decision mechanisms. In L.J. Koenig, L.S. Doll, A. O'Leary, & W. Pequegnat (Eds.) From Child Sexual Abuse to Adult Sexual Risk: Trauma, Revictimization, and Intervention. (pp135-158) Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.
.(from the chapter) Previous research has demonstrated a connection between child sexual abuse victimization and engaging in high-risk sexual behaviors as an adult. In this chapter, the authors describe a set of cognitive mechanisms that may be important mediators of the relationship between abuse experiences and sexually risky behavior. Their shared focus is on cognitive science approaches to understanding the psychology of sexual abuse and aggression. Their theorizing takes an information-processing perspective and is concerned with cognitive structures, processes, and mechanisms. The chapter first describes some of the authors' ongoing work investigating cognitive mechanisms in the area of trauma, dissociation, and memory, and then speculates about the implication for sexually risk behavior.
Becker-Blease, K.A., Deater-Deckard, K., Eiley, T, Freyd, J.J.,. Stevenson, J., & Plomin, R. (2004). A genetic analysis of individual differences in dissociative behaviors in childhood and adolescence. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 522-532.
.Abstract: Dissociation - a pattern of general disruption in memory and consciousness - has been found to be an important cognitive component of children's and adults' coping with severe trauma. Dissociative experiences include amnesia, identity disturbance, age regression, difficulty with concentration, and trance states. Stable individual differences in dissociative behaviors may represent a dissociative tendency trait that varies in the population independent of the influence of trauma. In the current study, we examined genetic and environmental sources of variance in some of these behaviors by comparing 86 pairs of adoptive siblings and 102 pairs of full siblings from the Colorado Adoption Project (parents' and teachers' ratings), and 218 pairs of identical and 173 pairs of same-sex fraternal twins from the British Register for Child Twins (parents' ratings). The study used a dissociation scale comprised of six CBCL items. Developmentally, there was no change in mean dissociation scores across middle childhood and adolescence, and individual differences were moderately stable. Both parents' and teachers' ratings showed moderate to substantial amounts of genetic and nonshared environmental variance and negligible shared environmental variance, and most of the parent-teacher agreement in their ratings was accounted for by overlapping genetic variance.
Freyd, J.J. (2004). Film undermines efforts to fight child abuse. The Register-Guard (Eugene, Oregon), [Op-Ed] February 29, 2004, p B3.
Becker-Blease, K.A. & Freyd, J.J., & Pears, K.C. (2004). Preschoolers' memory for threatening information depends on trauma history and attentional context: Implications for the development of dissociation. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 5(1), 113-131.
Abstract: Although the roots of dissociative ability are thought to lie in early childhood, little is understood about how or why children dissociate or how dissociative abilities develop over time. Previous cognitive studies of adults suggest that some dissociative adults use divided attention to keep threatening information out of awareness (DePrince & Freyd, 1999, 2001). This study utilized a divided attention memory task similar to those used by DePrince and Freyd (DePrince & Freyd, 1999), but modified for four and five-year-olds. Contrary to prediction, children with relatively high dissociation scores did not differ in their memory for charged and neutral pictures under divided attention when compared to children with low dissociation scores. Consistent with predictions, under divided attention, abused children remembered fewer charged pictures relative to non-abused children. The same pattern was found when comparing abused children with high dissociation scores to non-abused children with low dissociation scores. These results are consistent with the idea that some traumatized people use divided attention to keep threatening information out of awareness. Results are discussed in terms of a developmental theory of dissociation.
DePrince, A.P. & Freyd, J.J. (2004). Forgetting trauma stimuli. Psychological Science, 15, 488-492.
Full text: available on this site.
Abstract: Previous work reported in this journal suggested that
the cognitive capacities of high dissociators are impaired under conditions
of focused (selective) attention, but not under conditions of divided
attention, compared with the cognitive capacities of low dissociators.
Using a directed-forgetting paradigm, the current study demonstrated that
under divided-attention demands, high dissociators have impaired memory
for words associated with trauma (e.g., incest) but not for neutral words,
as compared with low dissociators. In addition, high dissociators reported
significantly more trauma history and significantly more betrayal trauma
(abuse by a caregiver) than low dissociators. These results are consistent
with the proposal that dissociation may aid individuals with histories
of betrayal traumas to keep threatening information out of awareness.
Birrell, P.J., & Freyd, J.J. (2004). Speaking for ourselves: unmasking the hidden agenda of the false memory controversy. [book review] Ethics & Behavior, 14, 89-92.
DePrince, A.P., Allard, C.B., Oh, H., & Freyd,
J.J. (2004). What's in a name for memory errors? Implications and ethical
issues arising from the use of the label "false memory" for
errors in memory for details. Ethics & Behavior, 14,
201-233.
Abstract: The term "false memories" has been used to refer to suggestibility experiments in which whole events are apparently confabulated and in media accounts of contested memories of childhood abuse. Since 1992 psychologists have increasingly used the term "false memory" when discussing memory errors for details, such as specific words within word lists. Use of the term to refer to errors in details is a shift in language away from other terms used historically (e.g., "memory intrusions"). We empirically examine this shift in language and discuss implications of the new use of the term "false memories." Use of the term presents serious ethical challenges to the data-interpretation process by encouraging over-generalization and misapplication of research findings on word memory to social issues.
Goldsmith, R.E., Barlow, M.R., & Freyd, J.J. (2004). Knowing and not knowing about trauma: Implications for therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 41, 448-463.
Abstract: Levels of awareness for trauma and their consequences for research, treatment, and prevention within professional psychology and society are considered. When people must endure chronically traumatic environments, it may be adaptive to isolate from awareness information that would produce cognitive dissonance and threaten necessary relationships. Unawareness may also facilitate functioning in environments that invalidate the prevalence and impact of trauma. In addition, characteristics of the posttraumatic environment can promote or impede individuals' awareness of trauma and their psychological functioning. Though often initially adaptive, unawareness for trauma is linked to intergenerational transmission of trauma and its effects and may preclude public and professional attention to trauma treatment and prevention. Understanding the processes through which individuals become unaware or aware of traumatic experience is therefore essential to conducting effective psychotherapy with trauma survivors.
DePrince, A.P. & Freyd, J.J. (2004). Costs and benefits of being asked about trauma history. Journal of Trauma Practice, 4(3), 23-35.
Note:
Cover Date: 2004
Publication Date: 2006
Copyright Date: 2005
Abstract: How do participants feel about trauma history questions in research? We asked 528 undergraduate and community participants to answer three questions about their experience of completing the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey (BBTS; Goldberg &Freyd, 2004), a self-report trauma measure. The questions tapped (1) participants' experience of whether the trauma history questions were more or less distressing than things encountered in day-to-day life, (2) how important participants believe it is for psychologists to ask about these events, and (3) how good of an idea, according to participants, it is to include such a measure in psychology research. Participants indicated that, on average, questions about trauma are neutral compared to day-to-day experiences. Further, participants reported that research asking about stressful life events is more than “somewhat important,” and that including such measures is more than “somewhat good.” These results do not support the assumption that trauma history questions are harmful to participants and suggest that participants, on average, appreciate the inclusion of trauma questions in psychological research.
Becker-Blease, K.A., & Freyd, J.J. (2005). Beyond PTSD: An evolving relationship between trauma theory and family violence research. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20, 403-411.
Abstract: During the past 20 years, we have learned how similarly harmful are experiences of terror, violence, and abuse, whether they occur on the combat field or at home. The field of family violence has gained much from the field of traumatic stress, and collaborations between these two previously separate fields have yielded important new answers, as well as new research questions. The field of traumatic stress is poised to integrate, more fully than in the past, a variety of aspects of trauma such as social betrayal, as well as outcomes of trauma such as depression, criminality, and physiological harm that go beyond posttraumatic stress. The field of family violence has much to offer in this process. We look forward to improved research designs that will further our knowledge of how trauma affects aspects of people’s lives, including productivity, relationships, cognition, and emotions, in negative and positive ways.
Freyd, J.J., Putnam, F.W., Lyon, T.D., Becker-Blease, K. A., Cheit, R.E., Siegel, N.B., & Pezdek, K. (2005). The science of child sexual abuse. Science, 308, 501.
Freyd, J.J., Putnam, F.W., Lyon, T.D., Becker-Blease, K. A., Cheit, R.E., Siegel, N.B., & Pezdek, K. (2005). The problem of child sex abuse [Response to letters]. Science, 309, 1183-1185.
Full text: available
from Science Magazine
Pre-publication version: available
on this site.
Summary: Child sexual abuse (CSA) involving sexual contact between
an adult and a child has been reported by approximately 20% of women and
5 to 10% of men worldwide. A history of CSA leads to serious mental and
physical health problems, substance abuse, and criminality in adulthood.
Scientific study of CSA is currently underfunded, obscured by contentious
forensic controversy, and fragmented by discipline. From public health,
economic, ethical, and scientific perspectives, the authors of this Policy
Forum recommend interdisciplinary consensus panels and increased intellectual
investment in CSA research, prevention, intervention, and education. Full
text of abstract from Science Magazine
Response: In the 19 August 2005 issue of Science
4 letters and authors' response.
Cheit, R.E. & Freyd, J.J. (2005). Let's have an honest fight against child sex abuse. Brown University Child & Adolescent Behavior Letter, 21(6), 8.
Reprinted as Cheit, R.E. & Freyd, J.J. (2006). "Funding for child abuse prevention programs must be increased", pp 124-127, in L. Almond (Ed.) Child Abuse, Greenhaven Press.
Note: Commentary related to the Science policy forum (reference above).
Goldsmith, R. & Freyd, J.J. (2005). Awareness for emotional abuse. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 5(1), 95-123.
Abstract: This study investigates links between emotional abuse and emotional awareness. Predictions included a positive correlation between emotional abuse and alexithymia, and that few individuals reporting emotional abuse would self-label as having been abused. Eighty participants completed anonymous, self-report surveys with symptom and trauma inventories. Participants were asked if they were physically, sexually, or emotionally abused (using the word “abused”); these questions preceded symptom and maltreatment measures. Emotional abuse and neglect were significantly positively correlated with difficulty identifying feelings, even after controlling for participants' depression, anxiety, dissociation, and lifetime trauma. Few subjects self-identified as having been “abused,” even among those reporting abuse experiences. The results demonstrate a connection between emotional abuse and difficulty identifying emotions. Cognitive, therapeutic, and research implications are discussed.
Freyd, J.J., Klest, B., & Allard, C.B. (2005). Betrayal trauma: Relationship to physical health, psychological distress, and a written disclosure intervention. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 6(3), 83-104.
Abstract: In the current study we sought, first, to distinguish associations with health arising from types of trauma as indicated by betrayal trauma theory (Freyd 1996, 2001), and, second, to investigate the impact of disclosing a trauma history in survey form and/or writing essays about betrayal traumas. We recruited 99 community adults reporting at least 12 months of chronic medical illness or pain, 80 of whom completed all four sessions of this 6 month longitudinal intervention study. Participants were randomly assigned to write about betrayal traumas or neutral events, and they were randomly assigned to complete an extensive trauma survey or a long personality inventory, producing 4 groups of participants. All 99 participants were assessed at their initial visit for trauma history using the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey (BBTS) and physical and mental symptoms. The BBTS assesses exposure to both traumas high in betrayal (such as abuse by a close other) and traumas low in betrayal but high in life-threat (such as an automobile accident). Exposure to traumas with high betrayal was significantly correlated with number of physical illness, anxiety, dissociation, and depression symptoms. Amount of exposure to other types of traumas (low betrayal traumas) did not predict symptoms over and above exposure to betrayal trauma. While neither the survey manipulation nor the writing intervention led to main effects on change in symptoms over time, there were interactions between betrayal trauma history and condition such that participants with many betrayal traumas fared better in the control conditions while participants with fewer betrayal traumas had better outcomes if they were placed in the trauma writing and/or survey conditions. We discuss ongoing and future research aimed at evaluating the role of increased structure in writing assignments as beneficial for those with severe histories of betrayal trauma.
Middleton, W. Cromer, L. & Freyd, J.J. (2005). Remembering the past: Anticipating a future, Australasian Psychiatry, 13(3), 223-233.
Full text: available on this site.
Abstract: Objective: To provide an overview of the phenomena
of recovered memories and false memories of past traumas and to provide
illustrations with clinical vignettes as well as historical observations.
Conclusions: The questions concerning the recovery of memories
of trauma do not readily reduce to simple dichotomies. Whatever the terminology
applied, be it repression, dissociation or forgetting, humans have a capacity
to not consciously know about aspects of their traumas for extended periods
of time. The nature of memory is reconstructive. Memory is not a digital
recording that provides for a totally accurate replay. Multiple factors
including the age at which traumas occurred, the relationships to the
person responsible or the nature and extent of the traumas influence what
will be accessible to memory. In regard to those patients who describe
recovered memories, it is important that clinicians take an individualistic
approach and remain open-minded. They should not feel pressure to validate
or reject the claim; rather, they should respect and empower patients.
Freyd, J.J. (2006). Long Live the Journal of Trauma & Dissociation. [Editorial] Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 7(1), 1-3.
Becker-Blease, K.A. & Freyd, J.J. (2006). Research participants telling the truth about their lives: the ethics of asking and not asking about abuse. American Psychologist, 6(3), 218-226.
Full text: available on this site.
Abstract: Most discussions of the ethics of self-report research
on abuse and interpersonal violence focus on the risks of asking participants
about their experiences. An important element of the cost-benefit analysis--the
costs of not asking about child abuse--has largely been ignored. Furthermore,
little research has been conducted on the costs and benefits of child
abuse research, leaving researchers to make decisions based on individual
beliefs about such issues as the prevalence of abuse, the likelihood of
disclosure, the effects of child abuse, and the ability of abuse survivors
to give informed consent. The authors suggest that these beliefs tend
to overemphasize survivors' vulnerability and ignore the costs of avoiding
asking about abuse. In fact, these beliefs may reinforce societal avoidance
of abuse and ultimately harm abuse survivors.
Also see the five comments about the 2006 paper pulished in American Psychologist 6(4), 2007, pages 325-330and authors' response, pages 330-332.
Goldberg, LR. & Freyd, J.J. (2006). Self-reports of potentially traumatic experiences in an adult community sample: Gender differences and test-retest stabilities of the items in a Brief Betrayal-Trauma Survey. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 7(3), 39-63.
Abstract: A new survey of potentially traumatic events was administered to a large community sample on two occasions, three years apart. In contrast to previous surveys, this one included separate items for events that involve mistreatment by someone close, mistreatment by someone not so close, and non-interpersonal events. For both kinds of interpersonal events, separate items focused on physical, sexual, and emotional types of potential abuse. For each event, respondents indicated the extent of their exposure both prior to and after age 18. This paper reports the prevalence of each of the various kinds of events in subsamples of women (N = 397) and men (N = 292) in both childhood and adulthood, and provides four alternative indices of test-retest stability for each of the event reports. Substantial differences between men and women were found for many of the reported events on both occasions. Specifically, far more women than men reported having experienced traumatic events perpetrated by someone close to them, whereas far more men than women reported having experienced traumatic events perpetrated by someone not close. Some of the implications of these gender interaction effects are discussed.
Cromer, L.D., Freyd, J.J., Binder, A., DePrince, A.P., & Becker-Blease, K.A (2006). What's the risk in asking? Participant reaction to trauma history questions compared with other personal questions. Ethics & Behavior, 16, 347-362.
Abstract: Does asking about trauma history create participant distress? If so, how does it compare with reactions to other personal questions? Do participants consider trauma questions important compared to other personal questions? Using 2 undergraduate samples (Ns = 240 and 277), the authors compared participants’ reactions to trauma questions with their reactions to other possibly invasive questions through a selfreport survey. Trauma questions caused relatively minimal distress and were perceived as having greater importance and greater cost–benefit ratings compared to other kinds of psychological research in an undergraduate human subjects pool population. These findings suggest that at least some kinds of trauma research appear to pose minimal risk when compared to other minimal risk research topics, and that participants recognize the importance of research about trauma.
Birrell, P.J. & Freyd, J.J. (2006). Betrayal trauma: Relational models of harm and healing. Journal of Trauma Practice, 5(1), 49-63.
Abstract: We examine a model that emphasizes the importance of relationships as the context of trauma and healing. First, we present an overview of the effects of betrayal trauma and oppression on psychological functioning. Then, we propose a relational model of healing, using elements of the Stone Center's Relational-Cultural theory. Finally, we discuss healing in the wider context of community and an ethic of compassion and mutuality.
Freyd, J.J. (2006). The Social Psychology of Cognitive Repression [Commentary] Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 518-519.
Abstract: Erdelyi identifies cognitive and emotional motives for repression, but largely neglects social motivations. Yet social pressure to not know, and implicit needs to isolate awareness in order to protect relationships, are common motives. Social motives may even trump emotional motives; the most painful events are sometimes the most difficult to repress. Cognitive repression may be impacted by social information sharing. [Note: This is a commentary on Erdely's "Unified Theory of Repression", 2006, Behavioral and Brain Sciences.]
Cromer, L.D. & Freyd, J.J. (2007).
What influences believing abuse reports? The roles of depicted memory
persistence, participant gender, trauma history, and sexism. Psychology
of Women's Quarterly, 3, 13-22.
Abstract: This vignette study investigated factors that influence believing child sexual abuse disclosures. College student participants (N = 318) in a university human subject pool completed measures about their own trauma history and responded to questions about sexist attitudes. Participants then read vignettes in which an adult disclosed a history of child sexual abuse, rated disclosures for accuracy and believability, and judged the level of abusiveness. Continuous memories were believed more than recovered memories. Men believed abuse reports less than did women, and people who had not experienced trauma were less likely to believe trauma reports. Gender and personal history interacted such that trauma history did not impact women’s judgments but did impact men’s judgments. Men with a trauma history responded similarly to women with or without a trauma history. High sexism predicted lower judgments of an event being abusive. Hostile sexism was negatively correlated with believing abuse disclosures. Results are considered in light of myths about child sexual abuse.
Freyd, J.J., DePrince, A.P., & Gleaves, D. (2007).
The State of Betrayal Trauma Theory: Reply to McNally (2007) -- Conceptual
Issues and Future Directions. Memory, 15, 295-311.
Abstract: Betrayal trauma theory (Freyd, 1994, 1996, 2001) is an approach to conceptualising trauma that points to the importance of social relationships in understanding post-traumatic outcomes, including reduced recall. We argue in this paper that child sexual abuse very often constitutes a severe betrayal trauma and that it is thus ‘‘genuinely traumatic’’. We will also argue that one reasonably common effect of child sexual abuse*particularly the more it involves betrayal trauma*is some degree of forgetting or ‘‘knowledge isolation’’ about the event. This last claim speaks to the heart of betrayal trauma theory that McNally has summarised and critiqued. In this paper we will respond to aspects of McNally’s critique as well as offer our own perspective on the state of betrayal trauma theory.We discuss (1) conceptual issues, (2) critiques of empirical studies, and (3) future directions. Although our interpretation of data diverges from McNally’s in many places, we have all arrived at a surprisingly common endpoint. McNally suggests a child may not think about the abuse for several reasons, such as fears that disclosure may break up the family. In accord with betrayal trauma theory, we note that the failure to think about events will contribute to poorer memory for the event and that these processes are mediated by the unique demands placed on a child exposed to betrayal traumas.
DePrince, A.P., Freyd, J.J., & Malle, B F. (2007).
A replication by another name: A response to devilly et al. (2007). Psychological
Science, 18, 218-219.
Opening Paragraph: On the basis of a cognitive-environments conceptualization of dissociation (Freyd, Martorello, Alvarado, Hayes, & Christman, 1998; DePrince & Freyd, 1999), DePrince and Freyd (2001, 2004) predicted and found that under divided-attention demands, high dissociators, relative to low dissociators, recalled fewer trauma-related words (e.g., incest) and more neutral words that were to be remembered. Devilly et al. (2007, this issue) present two attempts to replicate this statistical interaction between dissociation and word content under the specified conditions, using the item version of the directed-forgetting task. We are puzzled by their conclusion that these results were a ‘‘lack of replication’’ (p. 212) because both tests of the interaction hypothesis confirmed previous findings with comparable effect sizes, though at higher p values because of a lack of statistical power. The pertinent hypothesis has now garnered substantial support across four studies, with an average effect size d of 0.67 (95% confidence interval, CI: 0.32, 1.01). Here we discuss important features of the statistical analyses and hypothesestested in the report by Devilly et al
Becker Blease, K.A. & Freyd, J.J. (2007). The Ethics
of Asking about Abuse and the Harm of "Don't Ask Don't Tell"
[Comment]. American Psychologist, 62, 330-332.
Full text: available on this site.
Note: This comment is a reply to the the five comments pulished in American Psychologist 6(4) (pages 325-330) which are in response to Becker Blease& Freyd (2006).
Opening Paragraph: The authors of each of the preceding comments raised important points that extend our thinking about how to ask participants about abuse in an ethical way. Together, the comments point to the importance of researchers examining our own reasons for asking—or not asking—about abuse and of paying attention to how we respond when we ask.
Veldhuis, C.. & Freyd, J.J. (2007). Primary Prevention
of Violence by Adults: Let’s Not Overlook the Impacts of Having Been
a Victim of Abuse. [Commentary]. Trauma Psychology, Division 56, American
Psychological Association, Newsletter. 2(2), 3-4.
Full text: available on this site.
DePrince, A.P. & Freyd, J.J. (2007). Trauma-induced dissociation. In M.J. Freidman, T.M. Keane, & P.A. Resick (Eds.), Handbook of PTSD: Science & Practice (pp 135-150). New York: Guilford Press.
Full text:
available on this site.
Becker-Blease, K.A., & Freyd, J.J. (2007). Dissociation and Memory for Perpetration among Convicted Sex Offenders. Co-published in Brown, L.S. & Quina, K. (Eds.). Trauma and Dissociation in Convicted Offenders: Gender, Science, and Treatment Issues. New York: Haworth Press, and a special issue of the Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 8(2), 69-80.
Full text: available on this site.
Abstract: Sex abusers’ denial of their offenses poses serious
problems for their victims, treatment providers, and researchers. Abusers
deny their offenses for many reasons, including avoiding responsibility.
It is possible that some abusers do not recall their offenses because
of intoxication, head injury, or dissociative symptoms that affect their
ability to encode or retrieve information. Self-reports of dissociation
during childhood victimization, during the perpetration of victimizing
acts, and in everyday life were examined in a sample of 17 convicted sex
offenders. Half of the participants reported some forgetting of instances
when they had sexually abused another person. Forgetting perpetration
was related to both dissociation at the time of the offense and dissociation
in everyday life. Dissociating while the participants themselves were
being physically or sexually abused as children was related to both dissociation
during later perpetration and everyday dissociation as an adult. The results
support continued research and clinical work to determine the frequency
of dissociative symptoms and amnesia among sex abusers.
Klest, B. K. & Freyd, J.J. (2007). Global Ratings
of Essays About Trauma: Development of the GREAT Code, and Correlations
with Physical and Mental Health Outcomes. Journal of Psychological
Trauma, 6(1), 1-20.
Full text: available on this site.
Abstract: Past research has demonstrated in a variety of contexts
that writing about emotional topics can benefit physical health and general
well being. Most of this prior research has used the Linguistic Inquiry
and Word Count program (LIWC, Pennebaker & Francis, 1996), but not
global essay ratings, to assess what aspects of written essays might be
associated with such benefits. Yet scoring rubrics are commonly used in
the field of education to score global aspects of student writing. The
current study used a sub-sample of essays from a larger research project
on trauma, writing and health to develop a global rating rubric for essays
about trauma based on rubrics used in education. The resulting rubric
was reliably applied to participants’ essays about trauma. Global
ratings of essay organization were correlated with improvements in physical
and mental health measures at a six-month follow-up. Properties of the
rubric and correlations with outcome measures are discussed
Freyd, J.J. (2007) Archiving Dissociation as a
Precaution against Dissociating Dissociation. [Editorial] Journal of
Trauma & Dissociation, 8(3), 1-5.
Full text: available on this site.
Goldsmith, R., Tang, S.S.S., & Freyd, J.J. (2008). Policy and Practice Implications. In C. Hilarski, J.S. Wodarski, & M. Feit (Eds) Handbook of Social Work in Child and Adolescent Sexual Abuse. (pp 253-277) New York: Haworth Press/Taylor & Francis Group.
Full text: available on this site.
Brown, L.S. & Freyd, J.J. (2008). PTSD criterion A and betrayal trauma: A modest proposal for a new look at what constitutes danger to self. Trauma Psychology, Division 56, American Psychological Association, Newsletter. 3(1), 11-15.
Full text: available on this site.
Hulette, A. C., Freyd, J. J., Pears, K. C., Kim, H. K., Fisher, P.A., & Becker-Blease, K. A. (2008). Dissociation and posttraumatic symptoms in maltreated preschool children. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma, 1(2), 93-108.
Full text: available on this site.
Abstract:This study examines dissociation and posttraumatic symptomatology in a sample of
maltreated preschool-age children in foster care. Analyses compared Child Behavior
Checklist subscale scores for the foster care sample and a community sample, and also
examined differences between maltreatment subtypes. Exposure to any type of maltreatment
was associated with greater dissociation and posttraumatic symptomatology
in this sample. Preschool-age children with documented sexual abuse displayed high
levels of posttraumatic symptoms, whereas children with documented physical abuse
tended to use dissociation as a primary coping mechanism. The finding that physically
abused children had high levels of dissociation confirms previous research with
preschoolers.
Freyd, J.J. (2008) Giving psychology away on Wikipedia. Trauma Psychology, Division 56, American Psychological Association, Newsletter. 3(2), 27.
Full text: available on this site.
Barlow, M.R. & Freyd, J.J. (in press) Adaptive Dissociation: Information Processing and Response to betrayal. In P. F. Dell & J.A. O'Neil (Eds) Dissociation and the Dissociative Disorders: DSM-V and Beyond. New York: Routledge.
Short version reprinted as:
Barlow, M.R. & Freyd, J.J. (2007) Adaptive Dissociation: Information
Processing and Response to betrayal. International Society for the
Study of Trauma and Dissociation News, 25 (3), 5-7.
Full text of short version: available
on this site.
Becker-Blease, K.A., Cheit, R.E., & Freyd, J.J. (in press) Sexual abuse: Legal and public policy perspectives. In R. A. Shweder (Ed.) The Chicago Companion to the Child. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Tang, S.S., Freyd, J.J., & Wang, M. (in press). What Do We Know About Gender in the Disclosure of Child Sexual Abuse? Journal of Psychological Trauma.
Pre-publication abstract (not final): Child sexual abuse (CSA) is usually concealed by shame and secrecy and it is often not disclosed for long periods of time, or not disclosed at all. Lack of disclosure has profound implications for prevention, treatment, and science. Gender is often assumed to be a factor in disclosure rates. While empirical investigations of the role of gender in the disclosure of CSA have increased in psychological research in the past decade findings are often contradictory, and support for common beliefs such as males being more reluctant to disclose than females, may not be as strong as assumed. Therefore, in this paper we ask the question, "what do we know about gender in the disclosure of child sexual abuse?" We evaluate the degree of validity of reported rates of CSA by examining the methods used to gather epidemiological evidence for CSA. We also provide a critique of two methods commonly used in the study of CSA: prospective and retrospective studies. We conclude by identifying areas to address in future studies concerning gender and CSA.
Pezdek, K. & Freyd, J.J. (in press). False Memory. In Edleson, J. & Renzetti, C. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Interpersonal Violence, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Becker Blease, K.A. & Freyd, J.J. (in press). ADHD Symptoms and Correlates: Do Abused Children Differ from Non-Abused Children? Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma.
Pre-publication abstract (not final): Objective- In this
pilot study, we investigated difference in inattention, impulsivity and
hyperactivity, as well as demographic factors, in a sample of abused and
non-abused children. Method- We recruited a community sample of
8- through 11-year-olds, approximately half of whom had experienced child
abuse or neglect. Parents completed the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder Test, the SNAP-IV, the Brief Betrayal Trauma Survey - Parent
version, and additional questions about their family. Results-
Abused children had more severe impulsivity and inattention, but not hyperactivity,
symptoms. They were also more likely to have a family member with an attention
disorder. Abused boys and girls had a similar age of onset of symptoms,
while non-abused girls had a much later age of onset than non-abused boys. Conclusions- ADHD is a significant problem among maltreated children.
These data support large scale studies investigating possible differences
in etiology, presentation, and treatment.
Freyd, J.J. (in press). A new publisher, a new archive, and an old mystery. [Editorial] Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 9(4).
Platt, M., Barton, J., & Freyd, J.J. (in press). Why doesn’t she leave him? A betrayal trauma perspective. Chapter invited for E. Stark & E. S. Buzawa (Eds.) Violence against Women in Families and Relationships. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
